Triangulation

Triangulation is a type of survey which starts at a baseline joining two positions with a known distance and grows by adding sides to form a triangle, measuring the angles formed – always exceeding 20° – and shaping a network of connected triangles whose sides have 'calculated' distances.

From: International Encyclopedia of Human Geography , 2009

Triangulation

A. Nightingale , in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2009

Triangulation

Triangulation is an analysis technique used in multi-method research designs. Many research projects utilize more than one data collection method, leading to the development of different datasets. Datasets might be those collected from a quantitative survey or participant observation, for example. The results from the datasets are analyzed independently, but they also need to be compared to each other in some way. How they are compared depends on the methodological framework used. Triangulation is one technique to combine datasets, and three different kinds of triangulation can be distinguished: convergence, complementarity, and divergence or dissonance. These three kinds of triangulation are discussed in detail below.

Triangulation is a term that was borrowed from surveying, where it refers to the collection of different compass bearings (usually three, hence triangulation) in order to pinpoint a location on a map. In research, there is no fixed number of datasets that need to be compared, although in many cases, researchers will use two main datasets. The datasets are compared for convergence, complementarity, and divergence. If the results lead to the same conclusions, then the methods help to validate each other. Some researchers will also use triangulation to validate results by comparing the results from different observers of the same phenomenon. In other words, it is a form of cross-checking.

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Triangulation

Andrea J. Nightingale , in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (Second Edition), 2020

Abstract

Triangulation is a technique to analyze results of the same study using different methods of data collection. It is used for three main purposes: to enhance validity, to create a more in-depth picture of a research problem, and to interrogate different ways of understanding a research problem. Most often, triangulation helps validate research findings by checking that different methods or different observers of the same phenomenon produce the same results. It can also be used to interrogate inconsistencies and data that are not expected to align. The methodological framework used determines how the degree of overlap between methods is conceptualized. Researchers look for three types of triangulation: convergence, complementarity, and divergence. Convergence indicates there is a strong degree of overlap and accuracy between the data sets collected using different methods. Complementarity builds a richer picture of the research results by allowing the results from different methods to inform each other. Divergence presents a different set of challenges within the methods, and how it is interpreted depends on the conceptual framework for the research. Divergence can either indicate the methods or the results are flawed, or be treated as new data and analyzed to look for new insights.

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Framework for Meta-Assessment of Assessment Studies

Jytte Brender , in Handbook of Evaluation Methods for Health Informatics, 2006

11.3.2.1 Triangulation

Triangulation constitutes a rigorous scientific approach to compensate for weaknesses in the study methodology by application of different approaches for measuring the same characteristic. This should, however, not be confused with a multimethod approach applied solely for getting a multitude of measures in order to achieve richer information on different characteristics of the object of investigation. We would prefer to distinguish between real triangulation and a multimethod approaches.

Triangulation can be used at different levels in a methodology: methods, measures, and data triangulation, as well as investigator and theory triangulation (Ammenwerth et al. 2003).

Triangulation of methods that include an investigation of potential divergences within the outcome will increase the confidence in a study tremendously. In some particularly vulnerable studies, triangulation might (partly) compensate for the lack of confidence caused, for instance, by a missing baseline frame of reference. The advantage of using triangulation is that it may compensate for weaknesses in the methods applied, where stronger methods are not available or feasible to apply.

The study of Gamm et al. (1998a) applies a multimethod approach, but it was not fully clear whether it was a real triangulation, as it says, "In tandem with the surveys, interviews … provided additional detail and context for interpreting the survey results". However, a parallel publication of the same group on the same case (?) says, "Additional validation of instruments and confidence in findings are pursued through a comparison of questionnaire results with interviews and observation …" and "Triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods … provides some additional confidence" (Gamm et al. 1998b). So it seems to be a triangulation also in the first referenced study. This just shows how important details of the wording are for the interpretation of a study.

Triangulation of measures is used for mutual verification purposes (see, for instance, Gordon and Geiger 1999), in which it is explicit that measures from application of one method are correlated with the outcome of the other methods providing specific measures of user satisfaction ("We correlated these findings…" and "representative focus group statements were paired with associated survey findings"). Although the same level of explicitness as regards the actual use of multiple methods is not the case in (Østbye et al. 1997), the mere presence of the awareness presented by the authors will still increase the readers' confidence in the outcome.

Triangulation of measures may also be used for analytical purposes. For instance, Keen et al. (1995) use the concept at an assessment study of an investigative type (or constructive type) addressing cause-effect relations within the pattern of outcomes. The deviations exposed by the triangulation may be applied to elaborate the understanding of the subject of investigation.

Triangulation of data corresponds to repeated applications of methods and measures. This type of triangulation may be accomplished as repeated applications on the same case but at different periods in time or on a new case. In the former case, one has to be aware of the problem of organizational change as a function of time, while organizational differences are an obvious issue in case of the latter. Moreover, in the case of triangulation of data, it is also relevant to take into account intra- and interobserver variations, corresponding to variation in the interviewees' mood in an investigation of staff's attitudes in a user satisfaction study, for instance.

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Triangulation: Methodology

Linda Heath , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015

Introduction

Triangulation has been called "a veritable 'magical' word in mixed methods research" ( Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003: p. 674) and a "near-talismanic method" to combine qualitative and quantitative research (Miles and Huberman, 1994: p. 266). On the other hand, triangulation has been said to be "over-used to the point where it means nothing" (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003: p. 674) and to "have too much meaning," therefore having "no meaning at all" (Sandelowski, 2003: p. 328). So what is this magical, near-talismanic, perhaps meaningless thing? At its simplest level, triangulation refers to the use of multiple measures to capture a construct. The triangulation strategy, however, also can be applied to multiple operationalizations of treatments and manipulations and to the use of multiple theories, analyses, analysts, methodologies, and research designs, to name but a few applications. The use of triangulation logic in the social sciences emerged at the time that the quantitative purist or positivist approach was challenged by a qualitative purist or constructivist approach (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004). At a basic level, the triangulation strategy requires an acknowledgment that no one measure in the social sciences is a perfect measurement of the construct under consideration. With only one measure of the construct, the error and biases inherent in the measure are inextricably confounded with the construct of interest. Although this triangulation logic initially was explicated in the social sciences in terms of measures and methods with Campbell and Fiske's (1959) development of the multitrait-multimethod design, the same logic can be extended to treatments, settings, populations, and many other aspects of the research enterprise, and, many research programs used triangulation logic before the term was first imported into the social sciences. Although simple in concept, triangulation "carries with it a host of implications regarding the proper conduct of social research, the effects of imperfection or unreliability of measurement operations on the development of theory, and the manner in which our field might gradually attain the status of the more developed sciences" (Crano, 1981: p. 320).

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Ethnographic research

Kirsty Williamson , in Research Methods (Second Edition), 2018

Triangulation

Triangulation emphasises the use of multiple methods and theoretical constructs ( Guba, 1990, p. 23), thus adding rigour, breadth, and depth to a study (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 4). There are four common forms of triangulation: (1) data triangulation means that the ethnographer uses a variety of data sources for the study, for example, a range of different informants; (2) method triangulation means the use of multiple methods in the same project (Janesick, 1998), for example, interviews and observation (called tools or techniques in this book); (3) if possible, the ethnographer uses or consults several different researchers (interviewers/observers) to provide multiple perspectives; and (4) the ethnographer uses multiple theories and/or perspectives to interpret a single set of data.

While triangulation may not establish trustworthiness beyond question, it will show to the text's readers and the researcher's peers that rigour has been applied to the collection and analysis of the data, and the writing up of the text. Writing persuasively is important, rather than relying on 'scientific proof' (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). As well as providing evidence of triangulation, it is also important that ethnographers explain in the text the effects they believe that their own backgrounds may have played on the undertaking of the ethnography or at least to acknowledge that there will be some degree of effect. As Charmaz (2003) noted, in discussing constructivist grounded theory, "the viewer creates the data and ensuing analysis through interaction with the viewed" and therefore the data do not provide a window on an objective reality (p. 273). This means that, although there is every effort made to present the viewpoint of participants, there is acceptance that "we shape the data collection and redirect our analysis as new issues emerge" (p. 271).

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Milestone 6

Margaret Zeegers , Deirdre Barron , in Milestone Moments in Getting your PhD in Qualitative Research, 2015

Trustworthiness techniques

Triangulation

Triangulation is a foremost consideration in much qualitative research. It is an attempt to gain more than one perspective on what is being investigated. It may be two or more perspectives, despite the tri of triangulation (see this chapter for a more detailed discussion on triangulation).

Bracketing

We are indebted to Husserl (1931) for the concept of bracketing. This is a conscious and intentional intellectual device used by qualitative researchers, especially those whose methodology is phenomenology, consciously and deliberately placing themselves beyond their own constructions, preconceptions, and assumptions that may be closely related to what is being researched. It infers the trustworthiness of research work.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity is the qualitative researchers' capacity to identify ways in which their own attitudes, beliefs and positioning might influence their understandings of the meanings and contexts what it is that they are researching. An important dimension of this capacity is to step away from what they have thus identified, while acknowledging their own roles in the conduct of their research.

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Triangulation: Methodology

L. Heath , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

1 Introduction

Triangulation refers to the strategy of using multiple operationalizations of constructs to help separate the construct under consideration from other irrelevancies in the operationalization. At its simplest level, triangulation refers to the use of multiple measures to capture a construct. The triangulation strategy, however, also can be applied to multiple operationalizations of treatments and manipulations and to the use of multiple theories, analyses, analysts, methodologies, and research designs, to name but a few. At a basic level, the triangulation strategy requires an acknowledgment that no one measure in the social sciences is a perfect measurement of the construct under consideration. With only one measure of the construct, the error and biases inherent in the measure are inextricably confounded with the construct of interest. By using different measures with different irrelevancies, a researcher can bring into better focus the construct of interest. Although this triangulation logic was initially explicated in the social sciences in terms of measures (e.g., Campbell and Fiske 1959), the same logic can be extended to treatments, settings, populations, and many other aspects of the research enterprise. Although simple in concept, triangulation 'carries with it a host of implications regarding the proper conduct of social research, the effects of imperfection or unreliability of measurement operations on the development of theory, and the manner in which our field might gradually attain the status of the more developed sciences' (Crano 1981, p. 320).

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Research methodology

In Guerilla Capitalism, 2009

Triangulation and validity

Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods and data sources in the study of the same phenomenon ( Strauss and Cobin, 1998; Denzin & Lincoln, 1998; Bryan, 1988; and Denzin, 1978). Triangulation can overcome the potential bias resulting from the use of a single method or single source of data in a study. Triangulation can, therefore, increase the validity and reliability of the research (Strauss and Cobin, 1998; Yin, 1994 and Denzin, 1978). The present research used triangulation in this way, using different data sources and methods in the study of the same phenomena. In the study of Vietnamese culture, for example, I used various methods including historical analysis (i.e. the Vietnamese history and its bearing on culture), comparison (i.e., comparing Vietnamese and Chinese culture) and language and discourse analysis (i.e. folklore and expressions).

Another example is the study of the structure of Vietnamese SOEs. This study used data from different sources including interviews with managers and government regulations and policies. The study of opportunistic behaviour used interviews, questionnaires and data from newspapers and government reports. Different methods and data were used that were either supplementary or confirmatory.

Since the two major research questions were about the rules of the game (institutional matrix) in Vietnam and the players (SOEs), the rest of the chapter briefly discusses the sources of data collected about these two broad issues.

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Searching, Sketching, Plotting

D'Michelle P. DuPre , in Homicide Investigation Field Guide, 2013

Triangulation Method

Triangulation is the most common plotting method used. This method can be employed anywhere, indoors or outdoors. The method requires two fixed reference points to locate the position of objects. (For example, if the crime scene is in a room, objects can be located by using the corners of the room.) Objects are then located and recorded by the distance from the two points (see Figure 6.8).

6.8. TRIANGULATION METHOD.

Using the head of the body as 1 and the north corner of the shed as A, the south corner as B, the two trees as C and D, and the fence posts as E and F, we can plot the position of the body using two of the stationary items plotted to a body position.

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Surveying

U.F. Paleo , in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2009

Techniques

Triangulation is a type of survey which starts at a baseline joining two positions with a known distance and grows by adding sides to form a triangle, measuring the angles formed – always exceeding 20° – and shaping a network of connected triangles whose sides have 'calculated' distances. Triangulation may adopt various patterns in the search for a higher coverage or accuracy: a single chain of triangles, a chain of quadrilaterals, or a central point arrangement. The mode of operation in 'trilateration' is the calculation of angles from the measured lengths of the triangle sides instead of determining them directly.

A traverse survey is formed by a series of concatenated lines between points whose bearing and distances are measured. This configuration is optimal to adapt to terrain and obstacles. The traverse may reach the departure point or remain open. The open traverse starts at a point of known position and ends at a point whose relative position is measured, so that it is functional to survey routes, such as roads or water courses. The closed traverse starts and ends at the same known point, a procedure which is applicable to polygons.

Vertical surveys determine the vertical position of points using differential and trigonometric leveling techniques. Through differential leveling elevation is determined as a difference between heights, and in trigonometric leveling that is estimated as a function of vertical angles and horizontal distances.

According to the coordinate system used, there are two modes of positioning – relative and absolute. Relative or differential positioning is a mode of indicating the position of a point with respect to another, taken as the origin of a local coordinate system. In the second mode, the position of a point is referred to a universal coordinate system with a distinctive origin such as the geocenter in the geocentric coordinate system. In GPS surveying, the latter mode is generally common while in terrestrial surveying the former is more frequently used, assigning coordinates of new stations to an arbitrarily origin station.

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